The intellectual and social sources of the Shi'ite movement in Iraq

Abstract

When the prophet Mohammad died in Medina in 632, no one had been named as his successor. This failure led to fierce clashes, and various leadership models were proposed. Three criteria were laid out for selecting a Caliph: (a) sabiqa (precedence), (b) karaba (a close family relationship to the prophet), and (c) ria’asa (patrilineage). Abū Bakr (reigned 642‒634) was chosen in line with these principles; he became the first of the first four Caliphs (rashidun).

The emergence of Shi’ism is closely linked to the events surrounding Mohammad’s death and the appointment of his heir. Many Muslims supported ʿAlī ibn Abi Talib on the grounds that, as well as belonging to the same bloodline (ʿAlī was Mohammad’s cousion and son-in-law) he had been a companion to the prophet since his youth, his father having adopted Mohammad when he was orphaned. After the deaths of Abū Bakr and ʿUmar, ʿUthmān was appointed Caliph, and the rivalry between ʿAlī’s faction and their opponents intensified. ʿUthmān awarded his Meccan relatives key positions, the most controversial of which was that of Mu'awiya, one of Mohammad’s fiercest opponents during his rise to prominence. Throughout the rashidun period, supporters of the ʿAlī faction complained of discrimination and suppression. While this became a common feature of the movement, Shi’ism was founded only after the death of ʿAlī, who had vast numbers of supporters in Iraq.